The Iron Age Social and Technological Advances

The European Iron Age (~800-51 BC) is what archaeologists have called that period of time in Europe when the development of complex urban societies was spurred by intensive manufacturing of bronze and iron, and extensive trading in and out of the Mediterranean basin. At the time, Greece was flourishing, and the Greeks saw an explicit division between the cultured peoples of the Mediterranean, as compared to the barbaric northerners of central, western and northern Europe. Some scholars have argued that it was Mediterranean demand for exotic goods that drove the interaction  and led to the growth of an elite class in the hillforts of central Europe. Hillforts--fortified settlements located on the tops of hills above Europes major rivers--became numerous during the early Iron Age, and many of them do show the presence of Mediterranean goods. European Iron Age dates are traditionally set between the approximate period when iron became the principal tool-making material and the Roman conquests of the last century BC. Iron production was first established during the Late Bronze Age  but did not become widespread in central Europe until 800 BC, and in northern Europe by 600 BC. Chronology of the Iron Age 800 to 450 BC (Early Iron Age) The early part of the Iron Age is called the Hallstatt culture, and it was during this time in central Europe that elite chiefs rose in power, perhaps as a direct result of their connections to the Mediterranean Iron Age of classical Greece and the Etruscans. Hallstatt chiefs built or rebuilt a handful of hillforts in eastern France and southern Germany, and maintained an elite lifestyle. Hallstatt sites: Heuneburg, Hohen Asberg, Wurzburg, Breisach, Vix, Hochdorf, Camp de Chassey, Mont Lassois, Magdalenska Gora, and Vace 450 to 50 BC (Late Iron Age, La Tà ¨ne) Between 450 to 400 BC, the Hallstatt elite system collapsed, and power shifted to a new set of people, under what was at first more egalitarian society. The La Tà ¨ne culture grew in power and wealth because of their location on important trade routes used by the Mediterranean Greeks and Romans to acquire status goods. References to Celts, conflated with Gauls and meaning central European barbarians, came from the Romans and Greeks; and the La Tà ¨ne material culture is broadly agreed to represent those groups. Eventually, population pressure within the populous La Tà ¨ne zones forced younger La Tà ¨ne warriors out, beginning the massive Celtic migrations. La Tà ¨ne populations moved southward into Greek and Roman areas, conducting extensive and successful raids, even into Rome itself, and eventually including most of the European continent. A new settlement system including central defended settlements called oppida were located in Bavaria and Bohemia. These were not princely residences, but instead residential, commercial, industrial and administrative centers that focused on trade and production for the Romans. La Tene sites: Manching, Grauberg, Kelhim, Singindunum, Stradonice, Zà ¡vist, Bibracte, Toulouse, Roquepertuse Lifestyles of the Iron Age By ca 800 BC, most of the people in northern and western Europe were in farming communities, including the essential grain crops of wheat, barley, rye, oats, lentils, peas, and beans. Domesticated cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs were used by Iron Age people; different parts of Europe relied on different suites of animals and crops, and many places supplemented their diets with wild game and fish and nuts, berries and fruit. The first barley beer was produced. Villages were small, usually under a hundred people in residence, and the homes were built of wood with sunken floors and wattle and daub walls. It wasnt until near the end of the Iron Age that larger, town-like settlements began to appear. Most communities manufactured their own goods for trade or use, including pottery, beer, iron tools, weapons, and ornaments. Bronze was most popular for personal ornaments; wood, bone, antler, stone, textiles, and leather were also used. Trade goods between communities included bronze, Baltic amber and glass objects, and grinding stones in places far from their sources. Social Change in the Iron Age By the late 6th century BC, construction had begun on fortresses on the tops of hills. Building within the Hallstatt hillforts was quite dense, with rectangular timber-framed buildings built close together. Below the hilltop (and outside the fortifications) lay extensive suburbs. Cemeteries had monumental mounds with exceptionally rich graves indicating social stratification. The collapse of the Hallstatt elites saw the rise of La Tà ¨ne egalitarians. Features associated with La Tene include inhumation burials and the disappearance of elite tumulus-style burials. Also indicated is a rise in the consumption of  millet  (Panicum miliaceum). The fourth century BC began the out-migration of small groups of warriors from the La Tà ¨ne heartland towards the Mediterranean Sea. These groups waged terrific raids against the inhabitants. One result was a discernible drop in the population at early La Tene sites. Beginning in the middle of the second century BC, connections with the Mediterranean Roman world steadily increased and appeared to stabilize. New settlements such as Feddersen Wierde became established as production centers for Roman military bases. Marking the traditional end of what archaeologists consider the Iron Age, Caesar conquered Gaul in 51 BC and within a century, Roman culture became established in central Europe. Sources Beck CW,  Greenlie  J, Diamond MP, Macchiarulo AM, Hannenberg AA, and Hauck MS. 1978.  The chemical identification of baltic amber at the Celtic oppidum Starà © Hradisko in Moravia.  Journal of Archaeological Science  5(4):343-354.Bujnal  J. 1991.  Approach to the study of the Late Hallstatt and Early La Tà ¨ne periods in eastern parts of Central Europe: results from  comparative  classification of Knickwandschale.  Antiquity  65:368-375.Cunliffe B. 2008. The Three Hundred Years that Changed the World: 800-500 BC. Chapter 9 in  Europe Between the Oceans. Themes and Variations: 9000 BC-AD 1000.  New Haven: Yale University Press. p, 270-316Hummler M. 2007.  Bridging the gap at La Tà ¨ne.  Antiquity  81:1067-1070.Le Huray JD, and Schutkowski H. 2005.  Diet and social status during the La Tà ¨ne period in Bohemia: Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis of bone collagen from Kutnà ¡ Hora-Karlov  and Radovesice.  Journal of Anthropological Ar chaeology  24(2):135-147.Loughton ME. 2009.  Getting smashed: the deposition of amphorae and the drinking of wine in Gaul during the late Iron Age.  Oxford Journal Of Archaeology  28(1):77-110.Marciniak A. 2008.  Europe,  Central  and Eastern.  In: Pearsall DM, editor.  Encyclopedia of Archaeology. New York: Academic Press. p 1199-1210.Wells PS. 2008.  Europe, Northern and Western: Iron Age.  In: Pearsall DM, editor.  Encyclopedia of Archaeology. London: Elsevier Inc. p 1230-1240.

Master Of Science Degree Programs - 1502 Words

Master of Science Degree Programs This entry gives a general overview of online Master of Science programs, then specifically examines programs in high demand and those offered in accelerated formats. Next, the entry focuses on information students need to succeed in M.S. programs: how to find the right program, and a major problem that they will likely face during online matriculation. A Master of Science degree (in Latin, Magister Scientaie) is a postgraduate academic Master’s Degree awarded by universities worldwide. In abbreviated form, the degree may appear on academic transcripts variously as MSc., M.Sc., M.Sci., M.Si., Sc.M., M.S., MS, AM or SM. After the Master of Arts, the M.S. is the most completed graduate degree in the†¦show more content†¦The latter option is most common. It involves writing and defending a thesis or completing a research project which represents the culmination of the material learned. Admission to a Master s program is normally contingent upon holding a bachelor’s degree. Should the student desire to graduate from a doctoral program, Master’s level training is a prerequisite. In some fields or graduate programs, work on a doctorate can begin as soon as the bachelor’s degree is finished. Some programs offer a joint Bachelor s and Master s degree after four to five years of study. At the completion of these programs both a B.A. and an M.S. can be awarded. For thesis projects, students will typically work with an academic adviser to propose a topic, write a research prospectus and draft a final paper describing the research results. The research process takes about one year. The thesis is then reviewed by the student’s academic committee who must approve the paper before the student can proceed to graduation. If revisions are needed, graduation could be delayed for one or more semesters. Many graduate schools have residency requirements to complete a degree. A student may be required to spend at least one year living on campus and must accumulate a minimum number of course credits to be considered eligible for his degree. As online graduate education advanced, this residency requirement has been adjusted. Matriculation online may

Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Existentialism Free Essays

What if everything gets one nothing? What if it was true that man has the power to do whatever he pleases, but in the end all of it will mean – for lack of a better term – nothing? This school of thought is called existentialism, which is crucial in Tom Stoppard’s play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead – an absurdly written response to William Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern experience times of enlightenment, humor, and sorrow throughout their journey, leading them to ponder whether their livelihood actually has some sort of positive meaning. However, the ultimate gift of death crept up on them, without any explanation or hope, for all eternity. We will write a custom essay sample on Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Existentialism or any similar topic only for you Order Now The ideas of existentialism are shown in the play through unstable identities, uncertain knowledge of the past, and anti-heroes which lead to Rosencrantz and Guildenstern’s ultimate fate – their feared deaths. Unstable identities in the play contribute to the idea of existentialism by making Rosencrantz and Guildenstern indistinguishable, emphasizing their need for meaning. When introducing themselves to the Player and the tragedians, Rosencrantz announces, â€Å"My name is Guildenstern, and this is Rosencrantz†¦I’m sorry – his name is Guildenstern and I’m Rosencrantz† (Stoppard 22). Their own deprivation of identity shows that the meaning in their individual lives is lost, making them into cynical, unrecognizable objects. In addition, they have lost their idiosyncrasies, creating a problem for other characters in distinguishing between the two. During a discussion about the King giving them an equal amount of money, Guildenstern exclaims that the king â€Å"wouldn’t discriminate between [them]† (Stoppard 104). To the King, Ros and Guil are simply two objects that are willing to assist in any way possible; to him, there is no point in getting to know them individually. The King’s lack of differentiation between the two shows that Ros and Guil have lost a deeper meaning to the King, leading to the bereavement of identity. The ambiguous identities of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern obliged their characters to embody no purpose, inflicting the idea of existentialism. Ros and Guil’s doomful deaths were caused by their nonexistent individuality. The pair’s past also lead them through an existential drift; without meaning in their past, the pair still have nothing to go on. The uncertainty of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern’s past supplements the idea of existentialism by making the play enigmatic. While walking along the path to Elsinore Castle, Ros and Guil attempt to comprehend what they are doing before making the expedition to the estate; Guil asks Ros, â€Å"What’s the first thing you remember? † and Ros replies, â€Å"Oh, let’s see†¦the first thing that comes into my head, you mean?†¦ Ah. It’s no good, it’s gone† (Stoppard 16). Ros and Guil are not able to recollect past events due to the fact that the prior matters adhered no meaning. Even when Ros and Guil are dying, they cannot recall what they have done to deserve this with Ros crying, â€Å"We’ve done nothing wrong! We didn’t harm anyone. Did we? † and Guil replies â€Å"I canâ₠¬â„¢t remember† (Stoppard 125). At their dying second, Ros and Guil are still unable to fathom what they have or have not done. Their past events are proven to be meaningless, leading them to an existential wandering containing no answers. Also through the use of anti-heroes, Stoppard made Rosencrantz and Guildenstern useless individuals who could not carry out a duty without the succor of one another. An anti-hero, in some cases, considers his or herself to be incapable of completing tasks while being corrupt, sullen, and disaffected. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern entrust each other to get through all dilemmas and yet they still become confused. When deciding what their next undertaking shall be, Guil asks Ros, â€Å"What are we going to do now? and Ros replies, â€Å"I don’t know. What do you want to do? † (Stoppard 17). Using a popular decision-making device, Ros and Guil reveal that they do not have the confidence to decide what to do and to execute the decision. Confidence is an indicator of optimism, responsibility, and initiative; Ros and Guil occupy none of these positive attributes, giving manifestation of anti-heroes. Also, Ros and Guil count on the King’s letter to get through the peregr ination, with Guil saying, â€Å"Everything is explained in the letter. We count on that† (Stoppard 105). Ros and Guil refer to the letter whenever a predicament arises, urging them to resolve the issue. With the letter epitomizing their fate, it is what they count on the most. The pair fails to envisage that one another and the letter were the ultimate factors that lead to their demise. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern live up to the idea of anti-heroes in existentialism by being each other’s hopeless backbones and depending on the letter, which leads them to their fateful deaths. Through the utilization of vacillating identities, unforeseeable knowledge of the past, and anti-heroes, existentialism augmented Rosencrantz and Guildenstern’s ultimate kismet – their anticipated deaths. Tom Stoppard leads Ros and Guil through an obscure existence that turns out to encompass nothing. With this, the reader might ask, â€Å"What is life without purpose? † – And one can say that it is certainly no life at all. How to cite Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Existentialism, Papers

An Exploration of the Fear of Losing Reputation free essay sample

An exploration of the fear of losing reputation within the Salem Society. Good afternoon, today I will be presenting my IOP. I have chosen to base it upon Arthur Millers’ novel ‘The Crucible’, which references back to the Salem Witch trials in 1692. There are many themes in Arthur Millers The Crucible, like intolerance, empowerment, honor, hysteria and paranoia, legal affairs, such as accusations and confessions as well as several references to McCarthyism. However the theme of reputation was only vaguely explored, but yet, it plays such a big important role in the play. This leads me to my presentation topic. CLICK) Reputation: or to be exact, an exploration of the fear of losing reputation within the Salem Society. In today’s presentation I hope to further explore and develop Arthur Miller’s ideas and interpretations on the loss of reputation. What is Reputation? So first of all what is Reputation. (CLICK) Reputation, as stated by the Oxford Dictionary, is the belief or opinion that is generally held about someone or something, or a widespread belief that someone or something has a particular habit or characteristic. Honor: Before we can isolate reputation, we have to understand that there are a whole lot of things that tie in with reputation. One of the more obvious ones is honor,(CLICK) or what you know about yourself. There is a direct link between reputation and honor. If one chooses to save his honor or reputation, it will affect the other, negatively in most cases. An example is: Early on in the story John Proctor confessed to having intimate moments with Abigail Williams, therefore tainting his own reputation but doing the thing which is honorable. Confessing. Here, he chose honor over reputation; he’d rather have a clean conscience (what he knew about himself) than a good reputation (what others knew about him). After being accused of witchcraft, his dilemma was whether to confess to what he did not do or die at the rope. This time he did not confess. Once again he chose the honorable thing to do. Dying for what he believed in. In some eyes, his reputation was made even worse because he died an â€Å"unrepentant sinner† or as someone who was shameless of what he has done in his life, by this I mean the act of adultery. However, I’m sure some saw him as a martyr, so in a way he was saving his reputation as well. What is Theocracy? But before diving deeper into the matter, I would like to introduce the idea of theocracy. CLICK) In Salem at the time, the reputation of a person was heavily influenced by theocracy, which is a system of government in which priests rule in the name of a god. Reputation heavily depended on how a person stood towards god and the church. If a person was true to the church their reputation was most likely well preserved and untarnished. Since this is a Pu ritan society, it took matters concerning the church very seriously. The novel itself depicts two views and positions towards the church and god. This is shown perfectly in the line spoken by Judge Thomas Danforth in Act 3 on Page 85. A person is either with this court or he must be counted against it, there be no road in between Act III, Pg: 85 The judge is portrayed selfish and extremely loyal to the rules and regulations of his position throughout the novel. His reputation and the public’s opinion of him are most important to him. There is not much to the quote other than it being an example of theocracy. He emphasizes the fact that one must make his mind up how they stand to the church and can’t sit on the fence, and not ebb back and forth between against and for it. The quote sums up the attitude of the authorities toward the witch trials. Danforth is an honorable man, but, like everyone else in Salem, he sees the world in black and white, meaning he looks at things in a very shallow manner and does not see the importance in looking for deeper meaning. Everything and everyone belongs to either God or the Devil. The court of Salem, was considered blessed and sacred and was God’s way of interacting with humans in a theocracy, one cannot have honest disagreements because God is considered to be flawless and always right. Since the court is conducting the witch trials and representing god, anyone who questions the trials, such as Proctor or Giles Corey, is the court’s enemy. From here on, the logic is simple: the court does God’s work, and an enemy of the court must therefore be a servant of the Devil. (CLICK) Importance of Reputation in Salem: Reputation is tremendously important in theocratic Salem, because ones private life and moralities are the same as their publics. In an environment where reputation plays such an important role, the fear of guilt by associating with people of plans that oppose the church was very big. Many people are focused on maintaining a good public reputation. Many of the folks in Salem fear that the sins of their friends and associates will taint their names. Various characters base their actions on the desire to protect their respective reputations. For example as the play begins, Parris fears that Abigail’s increasingly questionable actions and the hints of witchcraft surrounding his daughter’s coma, will threaten his reputation and force him to quit is job, to which I will come later. The protagonist, John Proctor, also seeks to keep his good name from being tarnished. Early in the play, he has a chance to put a stop to the girls’ accusations, but his desire to preserve his reputation keeps him from testifying against Abigail. At the end of the play, however, Proctor’s desire to keep his good name leads him to make the heroic choice not to sign the false confession and to go to his death without signing his name on the made up confession, which contrasts with his original plan to uncover the pretence of the girls. The Fear of losing one’s reputation: In the novel, there are two main characters, which face the fear of losing or tainting their reputation publicly. These are John Proctor (CLICK) and Samuel Parris (CLICK). Now I will be showing evidence of how their reputation and the fear of its loss are shown. Parris The major fear that Parris has is losing his position in society and having people not respect him anymore. He is the minister for the town, which was a very important position in the Puritan society. As such, he is in a very visible position to everybody. (CLICK) Thomas, Thomas, I pray you, leap not to witchcraft. I know that you- least of all you, Thomas- would ever wish so disastrous a charge laid upon me. We cannot leap to witchcraft. They will how me out of Salem for such corruption of my house. Act I, Pg: 22 This quote is solely dedicated to show Parris’s fear of losing his status and reputation in the village. When his daughter seems to be all paralyzed and people are saying it is witchcraft, he becomes very worried. If the town ministers daughter is involved in witchcraft, or is even possessed by Satan for some other reason, the minister is going to look bad and people are not going to respect him anymore. We can also see that hes really concerned about his image and reputation because he gets so angry when Putnam and others say anything bad about him or insinuate anything to do with witchcraft Proctor It’s hard to stray on this question and not come to John Proctor’s reproach of the Puritan society and pleas for his own reputation. When confronted with the choice of signing a false confession or accepting death as a result of telling the truth, John Proctor speaks these lines. (CLICK) â€Å"I have given you my soul; leave me my name† Act IV Pg: 124 You won’t find another and more passionate line about the need to protect one’s reputation. Proctor speaks these lines at the end of the play, in Act IV, on page 124, when he is fighting with his conscience over whether to confess to witchcraft and thereby save himself from the gallows. The judges and Hale have almost convinced him to do so, and all that’s keeping him from freedom is his signature on the confession, which will be posted on the church for everybody to see, tarnishing his name. CLICK) This refusal reflects his desire not to dishonor his fellow prisoners. He would not be able to live with himself knowing that other innocents died while he knocked on death’s door and got away. More important, it illustrates his obsession with his good name. Proctor’s desire to preserve his one and only good name keeps him from testifying. It seems he has also finally come to the understanding of what a good reputation means and what cours e, and what actions are necessary for it. The most obvious one would be to tell the truth, and not lie to save him from the rope. CLICK) By saying ‘I have given you my soul’, he refers to his confession earlier on in the play about committing lechery. There is nothing purer than a soul, as it is the core of a person, stripped from all its layers of lies and pretence. He has finally come clean of the crime that has been plaguing him for such a long time. (CLICK) He thinks that enough damage was done to his reputation by confessing to adultery, and does not want to tarnish his name any further by confessing to something he did not do. (CLICK) Another quote from John Proctor is (CLICK), in Act 4 on page 118, when he says. I cannot mount the gibbet like a saint. It is a fraud. I am not that man. [She is silent. ] My honesty is broke, Elizabeth; I am no good man. Nothing’s spoiled by giving them this lie that were not rotten long before. Act IV, Pg: 118 (CLICK)This quote is drenched subliminal references to reputation as well as honesty, as this is also the first time he has been honest to his wife outside of court, since the start of the play. The word ‘mount’ represents a voluntary action. He can’t face the rope like a saint. Saint referring to Rebecca nurse, who has lived up to accept her fate and is already ‘1 foot in heaven’, and that he can never be as much of a ‘man’ as she is. ‘It is a fraud’ shows the certainty of what’s going on and fraud refers to the situation as a whole, and how none of this should have ever happened, and its all because of a few girls pretending, hence the word fraud, to be possessed by spirits. The stage directions of ‘She is silent’, indicate Elizabeth proctor silently agreeing to her husbands talk, but she may also be too afraid of him to answer, and feels like they are growing further part ever since his confession. John Proctor feels that he is ‘no good man’ because he broke one of the Ten Commandments. Conclusion: In conclusion, I believe that the theme of reputation plays a major role in ‘The Crucible’. Parris and Proctor have different motifs, when it comes to reputation. Ones tries to preserve his, whereas the other is fonder of his honor and the families name rather than his reputation, although both fear the loss of reputation, it just that Proctor has partially come to terms with the consequence. However in today’s society I personally actually believe that reputation does not hold as much power as it used to. For example if a girl in the family was pregnant without being married, the whole family was considered wrong and dirty. In present times, girls like these even have the chance to enhance their reputation, by participating in MTV’s 16 and Pregnant and putting on a good show. Like I said, this is just an example, and some people may not agree with me. But nonetheless in modern society, reputation is still an aspect by which we identify and label people.